ARP is used to find the MAC address that corresponds to an IP address: RARP is used to find the IP address that corresponds to a MAC address. True or False?

The answer is True.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a telecommunications protocol used for resolution of network layer addresses into link layer addresses, a critical function in multiple-access networks. ARP was defined by RFC 826 in 1982. It is Internet Standard STD 37. It is also the name of the program for manipulating these addresses in most operating systems.

ARP is used to convert an IP address to a physical address such as an Ethernet address.

ARP usually is implemented in the device drivers of network operating systems. It is most commonly seen on Ethernet networks, but ARP has also been implemented for ATM, Token Ring, and other physical networks. RFC 826 documented the initial design and implementation of ARP.

ARP works on Ethernet networks as follows. Ethernet network adapters are produced with a physical address embedded in the hardware called the Media Access Control (MAC) address. Manufacturers take care to ensure these 6-byte (48-bit) addresses are unique, and Ethernet relies on these unique identifiers for message delivery. When any device wishes to send data to another target device over Ethernet, it must first determine the MAC address of that target given its IP address These IP-to-MAC address mappings are derived from an ARP cache maintained on each device. If the given IP address does not appear in a device's cache, that device cannot direct messages to that target until it obtains a new mapping. To do this, the initiating device first sends an ARP request broadcast message on the local subnet. The host with the given IP address sends an ARP reply in response to the broadcat, allowing the initiating device to update its cache and proceed to deliver messages directly to the target.

Suppose that network addresses are scarce and are assigned so that they are not globally unique: in particular, suppose that the some block of addresses may be assigned to multiple organizations. How can the organization use these addresses? Can users from two such organizations communicate with each other?

To make the example concrete suppose that two organizations are assigned the same set of telephone numbers. Clearly, users within each organization can communicate with each other as long as they have a unique address within the organization. However, communications outside an organization poses a problem since any given address is no longer unique across multiple organizations.

A possible approach to enabling communications between users in different organizations is to use a two-step procedure as follows. Each organization has a special gateway to communicate outside the organization. Internal users contact the gateway to establish calls to other organizations. Gateways have procedures to establish connections with each other. This enables gateways to establish connections between their internal users and users in other networks

Between the 1820s and the 1850s, the American economy experiences the beginnings of the industrial revolution—a change so profound that in the United States, as in Europe, it transformed almost every area of life in fundamental ways. Why did the industrial revolution have such a profound affect on the American economy? Explain the major implications.

Industrialization came to the United States between 1790 and 1820 as merchants and manufacturers increased output of goods by reorganizing work and building factories. The Industrial Revolution changed the nature of work and workers’ lives. Many American craft workers had developed an“artisan republican ideology,” a collective identity based on the principles of liberty and equality. They saw themselves as small-scale producers, equal to one another and free to work for themselves. But as the outwork and factory systems spread, more and more workers took jobs as dependent wage earners.

The “outwork system” was a more efficient division of labor and lowered the price of goods, but it eroded workers’ control over the pace and conditions of work. For tasks not suited to outwork, factories were created where work was concentrated under one roof and divided into specialized tasks.

Manufacturers used newly improved stationary steam engines to power their mills and used power-driven machines and assembly lines to produce new types of products.

The new industrial system divided the traditional artisan class into two groups: selfemployed craftsmen and wage-earning craftsmen. Americans developed a water-borne transportation system of unprecedented size, beginning with the government subsidized Erie Canal.

Because of the expansion of industry and trade, the urban population grew fourfold between 1820 and 1840

How did the industrial revolution change the daily lives of American men and women?

Before industrialization the family was the basic social unit. Most families were rural, large, and self-sustaining; they produced and processed almost everything that was needed for their own support and for trading in the marketplace, while at the same time performing a host of other functions ranging from mutual protection to entertainment. In these preindustrial families women (adult women, which is) had a lot to do, and their time was almost entirely absorbed by household task (Cowan, 2008).

Under industrialization the family is much less important. The household is no longer the focus of production; production for the marketplace and production for sustenance have been removed to other locations. Families are smaller and they are urban rather than rural. The number of social functions they perform is much reduced, until almost all that remains is consumption, socialization of small children, and tension management. As their functions diminished, families became atomized; the social bonds that had held them together were loosened. ). The cheaper goods that were one of the hallmarks of industrial revolution also served as a significant increase in the standard of living for the working class. Because textiles had dropped drastically in price, the average worker was able to afford them, which were easily washable and thus more sanitary.

             In these postindustrial families women have very little to do, and the tasks with which they fill their time have lost the social utility that they once possessed. Modern women are in trouble, the analysis goes, because modern families are in trouble; and modern families are in trouble because industrial technology has either eliminated or eased almost all their former functions, but modern ideologies have not kept pace with the change (Cowan, 2008).

How can information technology support a company’s business processes and decision making and give it a competitive advantage? Give examples to illustrate your answers

Information technology plays important role in business, and it can be an important enabler of business success and innovation.


First of all, Information system and technology provide various channels to communication like E-mail, Instant messages, SMS servers, etc to all employees at any time all over the world. This type of software helps to saving time and cost. 


Second, Businesses regularly utilize computer-based information systems in order to record customer purchases, keep track of inventory, pay employees, buy new merchandise, and evaluate sales trends. Without the support of information technology, businesses would ultimately fall apart. For example if a business did not choose to use computer-based information systems, they wouldn't be able to evaluate what items were selling better than others and ultimately lose valuable information for future success. Information technology can also aid in decision making for a business. Decisions are made based on analysis provided by computer-based information systems. For example a store manager may make the decision whether to discontinue an item for sale or keep it on the floor due to analysis of sales trends provided by computer-based systems.


Finally, information technology helps a business create a competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is a product or service that an organization’s customers place a greater value on than similar offerings from a competitor. For instance, FedEx created a first-mover advantage by creating its customer self-service software, which allows people and organizations to request parcel pickups, print mailings slips, and track parcels online (Paige Baltzan, 2011).


References


Paige Baltzan, A. P. (2011). Information Systems. (T. Hauger, Ed.) Denver, United States of America: McGraw-Hill, Page 19.


Wiki Answers. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wiki Answers:http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_can_Information_technology_support_a_company%27s_business_processes_and_decision_making_and_give_it_a_competitive_advantage_Give_examples_to_illustrate_your_answer


Wiki Spaces. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wiki Spaces: http://team-ramrod.wikispaces.com/Chapter+1

What major trends are occurring in software? What capabilities do you expect to see in future software packages?

Many trends are occurring in software. Like at first, the computers were very hard to maintain. But nowadays software has made it very easy to maintain computers. The major trends or changes occurring in software are:

Have too much of flexibility , now used for daily communication, are used for security systems, and are also used for robbing(hacking). 

Software has too much flexibility: Flexibility has become one of the major attributes of modern softwares in the sense that, now developed software are becoming more easier to use .It does not really acquire tutorials or have to be thought before one can use a software on the market these days. This is due to cues and depicting of naturalness in software making it meaningful for users to see and use without haven to be explained before use. For example early versions of Microsoft Office were that uneasy to use but with current versions of this Application software (That is in 2007-2010), the organization is more simple therefore becoming more flexible because you can easily manipulate around with it.

In the future, it is hard to say what to expect from software packages. I’m sure they will be even faster and more user friendly than they already are. Prices will more than likely continue to drop, since more research and development will play a role in economies of scale. More and more software programs will probably be used over the World Wide Web. Using the World Wide Web saves space on computers.

Does the president have more or less power in domestic policy compared to foreign?

The President of the United States of America, by virtue of formally granted constitutional powers, has several significant leadership roles. While these roles are varied and diverse, they can generally be divided into two large areas of authority and responsibility: domestic policy and foreign affairs.

In the domestic arena, the President, as Chief Executive, has the formal constitutional authority to oversee the execution and implementation of the law. The President also has the ability to significantly influence the legislative and judicial branches. Through the exercise of these powers, the President can exert wide-spread and long-lasting influence on the domestic policies of the nation.

The Constitution grants the president three powers as to foreign policy. First of all, the President is the Commander in Chief of all the armed forces. He is also the head of the national security establishment. This power gives him the right to direct the military as well as the intelligence community and to appoint all high level officials. The President can also issue executive orders that affect both. The President is the head of State and the Government so when he goes on trips overseas he speaks for the country. The President has the power to make treaties with other nations and bring it to the Senate for ratification. They may choose to or not to pass the treaty just as the President has the authority to veto any bill the Congress passes (Murphy, 2007).

To sum up, the president has more power in foreign policy than in domestic policy. Because, when a president is abroad he represents the country. Furthermore, He can deploy troops without congress's approval. He can keep them there for 60 days unless congress declares war, or extends the time.

Can social inequality be overcome? Should it be overcome? Why?

According to the Longman Dictionary, inequality refers to an unfair situation, in which some groups in society have more money, opportunities, power etc than others (Longman Dictionary Online). Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments.

Inequality may result from one or a combination of the following factors, age, sex, disability, race and the prevailing economic environment. These can be classified under biological, social and political, and economic.

Political representation and decision making could also lead to inequality. In most countries including, Saudi Arabia, women are hardly represented in the political structure and for that matter, issues that concern them do not receive the needed attention. It is of little wonder therefore that women in Saudi Arabia could only vote for the first time this year in national elections. This is inequality resulting from the political system and the kinds of decisions it makes. For example the country’s laws forbid women from driving. (Burke, 2011)

Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable and plays an important function in society. Important positions in society require more training and thus should receive more rewards. Social inequality and social stratification, according to this view, lead to a meritocracy based on ability.

Conflict theorists, on the other hand, view inequality as resulting from groups with power dominating less powerful groups. They believe that social inequality prevents and hinders societal progress as those in power repress the powerless people in order to maintain the status quo. Positions are important so long as those in power consider them to be significant.

Inequality should be solved because; it prevents individuals and even large sections of society from realizing their full potentials. This does not only deny them of their fundamental human rights but also robs society of the full social and economic benefits that it could derive from the talents of these individuals and groups such as an enlarged economy among others.

The other reasons include starvation and disease and other forms of immense suffering that majority of the world’s population go through. In Africa for example, there are millions of deaths that result from preventable diseases like malaria, tuberculosis and diarrhea.

The threat that inequality poses to national security and world peace as exemplified by the Zapatista revolt is one major reason why it should be overcome. The insurgent group, Zapatista National Liberation Army’s activities in the mid 1990s in Mexico attests to the fact that those at the receiving end of inequality and injustice will not continue to remain silent forever. Social inequality will not disappear on its own; there must be a conscious effort to overcome it. For example, as of the late 1980s, 31.5 million people lived at or below the officially defined poverty level, while in 1999 the figure had increased to 34.5 million. (Collins, Hartman, and Sklar 1999; Oxfam 1999 both cited in American Sociological Review).

Distinguish between prejudice, ethnocentrism, and racism. Give real world examples.

Even though prejudice, ethnocentrism, and racism are interrelated, there are differences among these concepts. Sociologist Richard Schaefer defines prejudice as “a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority”. Ethnocentrism on the other hand refers to “the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others” (Schaefer 2006, pp 71, 245).

Ethnocentrism is a major reason for divisions amongst members of different ethnicities, races, and religious group in society. Ethnocentric individuals believe that they are better than other individuals for reasons based solely on their heritage. Clearly, this practice is related to problems of both racism and prejudice. While many people may recognize the problems, they may not realize that ethnocentrism occurs everywhere and every day at both the local and political levels.

To solidify the definition of ethnocentrism, looking at the present day politics of the United States is helpful. With instances occuring since its conception, the United States has often thought of itself as more powerful, more economically sound, and just generally "better" than other nations. This has been shown by the country's tendency to dabble in situations occuring in other nations, such as the country's current involvement with affairs in the Middle East.

One of the most well-known and the most horrible examples of ethnocentrism to ever occur was during Nazi Germany. Adolf Hitler decided that he hated Jews, as well as some other groups of people, and had many innocent people slaughtered in concentration camps. They did not deserve the torture that they received, and this was clearly an extreme case of ethnocentrism. While prejudice certainly leads to problems, very rarely in history has ethnocentrism led to the mass slaughter of millions of innocent people (Examples.com).

Prejudice can result sometimes from ethnocentrism, or however it may result from racism. Prejudice, in simple words, is referred to as a conclusion drawn by anyone without judging the actions of a person or thing. The word is mostly used talk about a premature judgment about some person or group based on religion, profession or any other feature associated to that person or group.

Racism is a form of prejudice and is the belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior (Schaefer, 2006). For example, a head teacher who refuses to admit an Arab student into his or her school purely on the basis of his race is engaging in racism.

The major difference between prejudice and racism is that a person can be prejudice even if he is not a racist but a person cannot be referred to as racist if he is not prejudice. Racism is based on a decision that is mostly premature and is based on the way a specific system is working in a country or a society. Prejudice, is also a premature thought but that is mostly associated with an individual only. Also, prejudice does not pose any threat to someone while racism might involve violence and threat to a group of people belonging to specific race (Andrew, 2011).

Large business organizations report an escalation in episodes of "desk rage," in which employees or angry ex-employees act out their frustrations violently by disrupting the workplace, and often increasing other workers' alienation in the process. Describe any incidents of "desk rage" that you may have heard about or experienced. What do you think can be done to solve the problems of alienation in the workplace?

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, Desk rage is extreme or violent anger shown by someone at workplace, especially when this is caused by worry or a difficult situation. The occurrence of desk rage is thought to be a function of various sources of stress.  For example, lost tempers, shouting matches and fistfights can be induced by overwork and crowding.

I heard about the following desk rage accident:

Costas worked long hours in cramped quarters at an Internet company in New York.  He continually had to deal with rushed deadlines, but he kept a check on his frustration over the work demands and his work environment.  One day his boss pushed him one time too many and Costas unloaded with an obscenity-laden tirade.  He quit his job one week later commenting, “Sometimes you just snap.

In addition to high work demands, many workers are finding themselves more cramped for space than ever before.  Perhaps due to cost-containment efforts and the price of commercial real estate, the average number of employees per square foot is at a peak level in many office spaces.  In addition, many employees commute long distances and by the time they reach their demanding and cramped work environments, they are already frustrated, if not irate, from battling traffic congestion.  The problem of stress appears to be more of an issue in larger organizations with approximately a third of employees in organizations with more than 1,000 people reporting that they are “at least somewhat” stressed whereas 16 percent of employees in organizations with fewer than 100 people report this level of stress.

A good approach to solving and managing the problems of desk rage should be by limiting working hours. The managers and decision makers need to realize the stressful environment under which the workers are working and should try best to limit the amount of hours being worked.

            Also, periodic relaxation is much needed to ease out the act of desk rage. Desk rage does not occur in a single day incident. Usually it is an accumulated explosion. Hence plan to take a few minutes off work to relax.  For instance, General Motors Corporation offers meditation and tai chi at is workout facilities.  At its tax center in Indianapolis, Ernst & Young has included golfing areas, fish tanks, and a recreation room where workers can nap.

Think about behavior in the context of sporting events. There are some sports, such as swimming and cycling, for which males shave body hair. Is this act seen by the public as a norm violation if it is done to make the athlete perform better?

Although a few people begin life with an unclear sexual identity, the overwhelming majority begin with a definite sex and quickly receive societal messages about how to behave. In fact, virtually all societies have established social distinctions between females and males that do not inevitably result from biological differences between the sexes (such as women's reproductive capabilities).

Gender role is defined as expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. The application of dominant gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between women and men. Both sexes are capable of learning to cook and sew, yet most Western societies determine that women should perform those tasks. Both men and women are capable of learning to weld and to fly airplanes, but those functions are generally assigned to men (Schaefer, 2006).

Sports have commonly been classified as masculine, while some sports are deemed to be feminine. In some aerobic sports like swimming and cycling men have to shave the body, which is one of the rules of this sport competition (Thinking Made Easy, 2009).

One of the main reasons why swimmers shave is to increase their speed. Shaving off body hair makes a swimmer's body smoother, thus creating less drag in the water. Though shaving may only trim a few fractions of a second off a swimmer's finishing time, in a close race, that difference could prove to the margin of victory (Brown, 2012). Besides removing the dead skin cells, shaving body makes the swimmers feel faster in water.

Significantly hairy men may find that their body hair generates a lot of heat, which can lead to excess perspiration and body odor. Shaving armpit hair, chest hair or even hair around the genitals can reduce sweating, and make men feel cleaner, especially in the summer heat (Lynn, 2011).

Society has a lot of stereotype about different gender behavior. Whereas, the public sees shave body as normal process for the swimmers, however when a men is not in a competition they see it as a norm violation, because only girl should shave the pubic hair. Furthermore, one way to see the difference between man and woman is on the amount of the pubic hair, man tends to have more pubic hair than woman.

To sum up, shave body for athletes is not considered as norm violation. Swimmers shave their body to increase the speed, to generate less heat, and also to remove the dead skin cells. Out of competition, man should not shave the body hair, because it is considered a norm violation.

Explain how the issue of sweatshops gives rise to an issue that combines women's rights, immigrant rights, environmental concerns, and human rights.

A sweatshop is a negatively connoted term for any working environment considered to be unacceptably difficult or dangerous, where workers often work long hours for very low pay, regardless of laws mandating overtime pay or a minimum wage. Child labor laws may be violated. Sweatshops may have hazardous materials and situations. Employees may be subject to employer abuse without an easy way, if any, to protect them.

The drastic increase and re-surface of sweatshops has been due to the need to increase the economy of a nation and also due to economic globalization.

Several multinational corporations have developed a tradition of moving its production and manufacturing of materials to less developed countries in order to take advantage of cheap labor and to avoid scrutiny from governments and human rights organizations. In these countries, labor unions whose aim is to protect the rights of the workers do not exist, so therefore, the workers who are subjected to harsh working environment, low wages have their human rights violated.

Sweatshops have been a major topic of human rights and women rights violation due to the fact that most of the employees are women who are mostly young and uneducated. Young women throughout the world are exposed to harsh working conditions with countless and frequent injustices because corporations, like those owned by the United States can get away with it. Also, many of these women are undocumented immigrants who are unaware of their legal rights.

Furthermore, sweatshops violate women's human rights throughout the world through the low wages being paid which is unable to meet basic standard of living, low standard and unsafe working and living conditions, long hours of overtime for which employees are not compensated, and frequent sexual harassment. In addition to that, women are often forced into enslavement.

            Also, another issue of sweatshops is the environmental concerns which have arose from their structure of operation. Several Multinationals have been noticed to cause a lot of environmental problems such as contamination of source of water supply and poisoning of the rivers from careless oil spills. These careless actions have hindered and sometimes cost the livelihood of the habitats of an entire city.

The book refers to Augustus's government as "a monarchy disguised as a republic." What does this phrase mean? Does this disguise continue throughout the empire period?

A monarchy disguised as a republic is used to describe a society in which the people are supposed retain supreme control over the government (republic).

Augustus’s government was a monarchy disguised as a republic. Like Julius Caesar, Augustus ruled by centralizing political and military power. Yet he proceeded more cautiously than had his patron: Augustus preserved traditional republican offices and forms of government and included members of the Roman elite in his government. At the same time, though, he fundamentally altered the nature of that government. He accumulated vast powers for himself and ultimately took responsibility for all important governmental functions. He reorganized the military system, creating a new standing army with commanders who owed allegiance directly to the emperor—a reform that eliminated problems caused during the late republic by generals with personal armies. He also was careful to place individuals loyal to him in all important positions.

After Augustus, the Roman Empire continued to grow to the point that it surrounded the Mediterranean. For example, in Byzantine Empire that was founded after the Rome Empire declining, he emperor decided to divide the empire in half because he thought that it would make it easier to govern.  Later on, while civil war ravaged the western half of the Empire, the eastern half of the empire was pretty stable and so Emperor Constantine decided to create a new capital at the former Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (present-day Istanbul).  

References

Chacha. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.chacha.com/question/the-book-refers-to-augustus's-government-as-%22a-monarchy-disguised-as-a-republic.%22-what-does-this-phrase-mean%3F-does-this-disguise-continue-throughout-the-empire

Jerry Bentley, H. Z. (2009). Traditions and Encounters . McGraw Hill.

Explain the purpose, nature, function and operations of Symmetric Encryption Principles. What are the essential ingredients of a symmetric cipher? Differentiate between encryption and decryption.

Symmetric encryption is a class of algorithms for cryptography that use the same cryptographic keys for both encryption of plaintext and decryption of ciphertext. The keys may be identical or there may be a simple transformation to go between the two keys. The keys, in practice, represent a shared secret between two or more parties that can be used to maintain a private information link.

Encryption methods can be extremely efficient, requiring minimal processing, and Both sender and receiver must possess encryption key. If either copy of key is compromised, an intermediate can decrypt and read messages

A symmetric encryption has two components a block cipher and stream cipher. (i) A block cipher operates on groups of bits – typically groups of 64. If the final block of the plaintext message is shorter than 64 bits, it is padded with some regular pattern of 1s and 0s to make a complete block. Block ciphers encrypt each block independently, so the plaintext does not have to be processed in a sequential manner. (ii) A stream cipher generally operates on one bit of plaintext at a time, although some stream ciphers operate on bytes. A component called a keystream generator generates a sequence of bits, usually known as a keystream. In the simplest form of stream cipher, a modulo-2 adder (exclusive-OR or XOR gate) combines each bit in the plaintext with each bit in the keystream to produce the ciphertext. At the receiving end, another modulo-2 adder combines the ciphertext with the keystream to recover the plaintext.

A symmetric encryption has 5 ingredients, which are the following:

1.                 Plaintext: this is the original message or data that is fed into the algorithm as input.

2.                 Encryption algorithm: this algorithm performs various substitutions and transformations on the plaintext.

3.                 Secret Key: is also input to algorithm. The exact substitutions and transformations performed by the algorithm depend on the key.

4.                 Ciphertext: this is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext and secret key.

5.                 Decryption algorithm: this is essentially the encryption algorithm run in reverse. It takes the ciphertext and the same secret key and produces the original plaintext.

Provide several examples of IPSec. What services are provided by IPSec? What is the difference between Transport Mode and Tunnel Mode?

IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) is a capability that can be added to either current version of the internet protocol by means of additional headers. IPsec encompasses three functional areas authentication, confidentiality, and key management.

IPSec provides the capability to secure communications across a LAN, Private and public WANs, and across the internet. Examples of IPSec include the following:

Secure branch office connectivity over the internet: a company can build a secure virtual private network over the internet or over a public WAN. This enables a business to rely heavily on the internet and reduce its need for private networks, saving costs and network management overhead.

Another example of internet protocol security is secure remote access over the internet. On this case, an end user whose system is equipped with IP security protocols can make a local call to an internet service provider and gain secure access to a company network. This reduces the cost of toll charges for travelling employees and telecommuters.

Last but not least, enhancing electronic commerce security, even though some web and electronic commerce applications have built-in security protocols, the use of IPSec enhances that security.

The IPSec provides security services at the IP layer enabling a system to select required security protocols, determine the algorithms to use for services, and put in place any cryptographic keys required to provide the request services. The services provided by the IPSec are the following:

·         Access control

·         Connectionless integrity

·         Data origin authentication

·         Rejection of replayed packets (a form of partial sequence integrity)

·         Confidentiality (encryption)

·         Limited traffic flow confidentiality

The IPsec standards define two distinct modes of IPsec operation, transport mode and tunnel mode. The modes do not affect the encoding of packets. The packets are protected by AH, ESP, or both in each mode. The modes differ in policy application when the inner packet is an IP packet, as follows:

·                    In transport mode, the outer header determines the IPsec policy that protects the inner IP packet.

·                    In tunnel mode, the inner IP packet determines the IPsec policy that protects its contents.

In transport mode, the outer header, the next header, and any ports that the next header supports, can be used to determine IPsec policy. In effect, IPsec can enforce different transport mode policies between two IP addresses to the granularity of a single port. For example, if the next header is TCP, which supports ports, then IPsec policy can be set for a TCP port of the outer IP address. Similarly, if the next header is an IP header, the outer header and the inner IP header can be used to determine IPsec policy.

Tunnel mode works only for IP-in-IP datagrams. Tunneling in tunnel mode can be useful when computer workers at home are connecting to a central computer location. In tunnel mode, IPsec policy is enforced on the contents of the inner IP datagram. Different IPsec policies can be enforced for different inner IP addresses. That is, the inner IP header, its next header, and the ports that the next header supports, can enforce a policy. Unlike transport mode, in tunnel mode the outer IP header does not dictate the policy of its inner IP datagram.

Why are so many companies opting for Joint -Venture?

A joint venture is a long-term participation of two or more companies in an enterprise in which each party contributes with assets, has equity participation and shares risk (Alliances and Joint Ventures, 2006).

Many companies are opting for this entry because it allows companies to improve efficiency and create economies of scale and scope while spreading the risk between the partners. It also gives the MNC access to the knowledge of its local partner that will help them better understand the market and its customers in that region, as well as the political issues going on in the region. It also lets the MNC overcome limits on foreign companies by becoming part of the insider group.

A fully owned company faces a high risk with such a large investment in one area. Moreover, many countries forbid this kind of entry, because they believe that a fully owned company will drive out local enterprises. Moreover, the home-country unions sometimes oppose the creation of subsidiaries, which they see as an attempt to export jobs, particularly when the MNC exports good for another country and then decides to set up manufacturing operations there (Fred Luthans, 2009).

References

(2006). Alliances and Joint Ventures. Vienna: UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION.

Fred Luthans, J. P. (2009). International Management (7 ed.). (S. K. Hunter, Ed.) Boston, Boston, USA: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Garcha, A. (s.d.). Diplomatic Culture or Cultural Diplomacy: The role for culture in international negotiation?

Paul R. Horst, J. L. (2007). Cross-Cultural Negotiations. Air University.

What do U.S. managers need to know about leading in the international arena?

As countries become more economically advanced, participative styles may well gain in importance. This does not mean that MNCs can use the same leadership styles in their various operations around the world. There must always be careful contingency application of leadership styles. That is, the style of leadership that is successful depends on the situation the leader faces.

Cultural differences do play an extremely important role in effective leadership, however, and must be carefully considered when leading people in different countries. For instance, in countries where there never was a private investment, most of the managers do not have the experience of leading a big organization, in addition, they may not help a MNC achieves its goals, because they are used to work for the government. In this case, the appropriate leadership style would be an autocratic.

When U.S managers are in Japan, if they want to have high achievement the leadership style that emphasized both task and human dimensions is the most effective. However, among low achieving groups, the leadership style that is most effective is the one which focuses highly on task and low on the human dimensions.